Building Construction

Methods of Building Construction

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Types of construction methods

When you purchase a home, more thought is put into the location and layout of the property than the methods of construction that were used to build it. That is something that becomes incredibly important when you decide that you want to build your own home from scratch. You quickly learn how different structural methods and materials used in the construction can affect the bottom line. With a definite budget in place, you really need to pay attention to all of these details, which usually means that such things as amenities and house features take second place to the actual build.

In our earlier articles, we have discussed an entire guide for RCC construction. The guide includes the detailed procedures for carrying out various different calculations for designing different parts of the building. Foundation design is the most important and first step in the design of RCC structures.

Masonry construction

One of the most commonly used methods of construction is one that basically dates back centuries, and that is masonry. Brick and stone are durable materials that can withstand the elements better than most. Building a brick home on a stone slab means that you will have a solid home with a strong foundation, but it is also a little more labor intensive than most of the modern methods that are available today. That additional labour can drive build costs up, but money can also be saved by using re-purposed bricks, which can also add a very unique look to the home.

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Interview with Architect Javed Kachchhi | Construction Site Inspection

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What to do on a”Site Inspection/Site Visit”?

Students are always curious and nervous about site visits since this is never taught in any of the colleges in the world. Students have absolutely no idea as to what is to be done when an engineer or Architect is expected to inspect the site. By site, I mean construction site.

Check out his biography: Architect Javed Kachchhi

He is an Architect, Structural Engineer and an Interior Designer. That is the reason why I was so hung up on trying to get in touch with him and write about his experiences about site inspection.

Here we go….

My first question was…

Me: Sir, could you tell us, What exactly is “Site Inspection” or “Site Visit”?

Ar. Javed Kachchhi: Well, let me be very specific. I am sure your readers would like that.

On a site inspection, an Architect/Engineer has to take a complete survey of the site. He has to inspect each and every element that is constructed on site and make sure that the construction is being carried on as per the drawings given by the Architect.

Me: Who monitors the site?

Ar. Javed Kachchhi: Monitoring the site is the work of Site Engineers. Site Engineers have to have a degree in Civil Engineering in order to qualify for the job.

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Understanding Stresses and Modular ratio | RCC Structures

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Stresses in Steel and Concrete | Building Construction

In one of our previous articles, we discussed “Basic definitions and formulas”.

Now we will move on with our discussion on “Permissible stresses in concrete and steel” and “Understanding Modular ratio”.

Permissible Stresses in Concrete

Reinforced concrete designs make use of M15 grade concrete. The permissible stresses for different grades of concrete is different. They are given below:

Sr. No. Concrete Grade M15 M20 M25 M30
1. Stress in compression

  1. Bending

 

 5 7 8.5 10
  1. Direct

 

 4 5 6 8
2. Stress in bond (average) for plain bars 0.6 0.8 0.9 1.0
3. Characteristics compressive strength 15 20 25 30

 Also refer for other values in IS:456-1978

Permissible Stresses in Steel

The permissible stresses for different grades of steel are given in the table above.

The different grades steel available in the market with their market names are as follows:

Mild Steel

Grade I steel is known as mild steel. The abbreviation used for Mild steel is (m.s.)

High Tensile deformed steel has two types. They are as follows:

  1. Grade Fe415 (Tor-40 or Tistrong I)
  2. Grade Fe500 (Tor-50 or Tistrong II)

The names of the high tensile deformed steel have been derived from their manufacturers.

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Repair of Sinking Foundation | Civil Engineering

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Sinking Foundation Damage and repair guide

We will discuss repair of Sinking foundation in three steps:

  • Step 1 – Examination of the Structure by an expert
  • Step 2 – As soon as the problem is identified, hire a contractor or a foundation specialist
  • Step 3 – Methodologies or techniques used for sinking foundation repair

Step One: Identification and Examination of the Structure by an expert

As soon as you find any signs of foundation damage that we discussed in our previous article “Identifying Sinking foundation”, you should immediately contact a professional (structural engineer). The first thing that you should be doing is getting your house examined and checked properly for structural damage.

The structural engineer is an expert in this field. He will be able to tell you as to what has to be done in order to prevent further damage and all that is required to be repaired. Sometimes people tend to think that engineers might exaggerate about the damages occurred to the structure because of monetary concerns. However, it should be kept in mind that the engineer has no vested interest in these kind of repairs. He is the person who would give you an accurate and unbiased opinion. And with his help and advice, the work is then carried out by the foundation specialists or a general contractor. This was all about STEP-1.

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Fly ash Bricks | Building Materials and Construction

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Fly ash Bricks | An alternative Building Material

Fly ash bricks are masonry units that are used in the construction of buildings. They are considered to be a part of good and affordable building materials. They contain Class C fly ash and water.

Fly ash bricks are made by compressing Class C fly ash and water at 4000psi and then curing is carried on for 24 hours at a temperature of 66 degrees Celsius steam bath. Air entrainment agent is used to toughen the bricks.

Fly ash Bricks
Fly ash Bricks

Since the concentration of calcium oxide is very high in class C fly ash, the brick is described as self cementing.

It is considered to be a good alternative to traditional mud bricks since the method of manufacture of fly ash is energy efficient that is it helps save energy, brings about reduction of mercury pollution and plus it is cost effective.

Raw materials used for the manufacture of Fly ash Bricks:

  • Fly ash – which is the primary ingredient
  • Sand or Stone dust – as fine aggregate
  • Lime – source of calcium carbonate which results in the bricks being called “Self-cementing bricks”.
  • Gypsum – to enhance the fineness of the shape of the bricks
  • Cement – to increase bonding and strength

Types of Bonds in Brickwork | Stretcher and Header Bond

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Bonds in Brickwork | Building Construction

In our previous articles, we discussed “what is a bond?” and “Rules for good Bonding”. Let us start our further discussion on types of bonds.

Different types of bonds are:

  1. Stretcher bond
  2. Header bond
  3. Facing bond
  4. English bond
  5. Flemish bond
  6. Dutch bond
  7. English cross bond
  8. Brick on edge bond
  9. Raking bond
  10. Zigzag bond
  11. Garden wall bond

Now we will proceed with our in depth discussion on “Stretcher bond” and “Header bond”.

What is a Stretcher Bond?

As the name itself suggests, stretcher bond is formed by laying bricks horizontally as stretchers on the faces of walls. The length of the bricks is along the horizontal direction of the wall.

Stretcher bond | Exposed Brickwork of a Restaurant
Stretcher bond | Exposed Brickwork of a Restaurant

Stretcher bond is used when walls of half brick thickness are to be constructed. The average size of the brick is 9cmx9cmx18cm. If the wall of thickness 9cm is to be constructed, then stretcher bond can be used.

Various types of wall constructions are done using this type of bond.

  • Sleeper walls
  • Partition walls
  • Division walls (internal dividers)
  • Chimney stacks

Types of Construction | Building Construction and Design

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Building Construction | Civil Engineering and Design

Construction of buildings can be divided into three main categories:

  1. Load bearing construction
  2. Composite construction
  3. Framed construction

But among the three types, framed construction is widely used for all kinds of constructions.

An engineering structure is an assembly of number of elements transferring the loads and providing a form space to serve the desired function.

Building Construction and Design
Building Construction and Design

The structural design is a science and art of designing, with economy and elegance, a durable structure is that which can safely carry the forces and can serve the desired function satisfactorily during its expected service life span.

The entire process of structural planning and designing requires not only imagination and conceptual thinking but of practical aspects, such as relevant design codes and byelaws, backed up by aple experience, institution and judgement.

The process of design commences with planning of a structure, primarily to meet the functional equipment of the user or client. The functional requirements and the aspects of the aesthetics looked into normally by an architect while the aspect of safety, serviceability, durability and economy of the structure for its intended use over the life span.

What is a building?

A building can be defined as a structure consisting of walls, floors, education, business, manufacturing, storage, hospitalization, entertainment, worship etc.

Normally all building are constructed according to drawings and specifications prepared by architects. Each city has prescribed building bye-laws to which building must confirm. The building bye-laws lay down norms like minimum front, side and rear backs, minimum height and area of habitable rooms, kitchen, bath, minimum area of windows, width of staircase etc, apart from respecting the bye-laws the building design should ensure optimum utilization of built-up space, thermal comfort, proper ventilation, desirable illumination and acoustical characteristics and it should satisfy the functional requirements of people who live and work in the building.

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Building Materials | Use of Carbon-negative Cement in Building Construction

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Carbon-negative cement | New revolutionary Building material

Carbon-negative cement…?? Sound different, doesn’t it?

Have you ever realized how much carbon is emitted because of using concrete in the construction of buildings, highways, dams, bridges etc?

Well, here’s an answer to that. It is found that out of the 100% carbon dioxide emissions, 5% of the emissions are caused by human activities. Majority of the carbon emission is caused by usage of concrete in the constructions. How? Cement is an indispensible ingredient used for making concrete. Cement is made by baking limestone and clay powders under intense temperatures (high temperature). The intense heat which is required for the production of cement is achieved by burning of fossil fuels which in turn release large amount of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere.

Building Construction | We can just imagine to what extent the carbon dioxide would be released into the atmosphere
Building Construction | We can just imagine to what extent the carbon dioxide would be released into the atmosphere.

Carbon dioxide is also released when the conversion of limestone takes place in the kilns. This conversion is called “Calcination”. It has been observed that the amount of carbon dioxide emitted during calcination is much higher than that which is released due to burning of fossil fuels.

Recently, a British company called “Novacem” came up with this concept of manufacturing ‘carbon-negative’ cement that absorbs more carbon-dioxide than it emits over its entire life cycle.

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Calculations for Overhead Water tank | Building Construction

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Design of Overhead Water Tank | Design of RCC Structures

As per NBC (National Building Code, 2005) standards,

Water required per person per day = 150 litres

Drinking water = 4litres per person per day

Calculation for an overhead water tank for a 3 BHK Villa:

Let us assume the average family size = 5 persons in the house

Water required for daily chores per person per day as per NBC norms;

150 x 5 = 750 litres

Drinking water required:

4 x 5 = 20 litres

Total quantity of water required = 750+20 = 770 litres

Volume of water = 770/1000 = 0.77 cubic metres

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Consequences of Wrong Structural Design | RCC Structures

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A lesson for all the Civil Engineers and Designers to learn

I got a project of designing (Architectural Design) a Hostel in Lucknow, India. The Structural design that is, column positions and wall construction was already done. The client wanted me to design a Hostel keeping the column positions and exterior wall construction intact. I have written this article to address all the Civil engineering students as well as Civil Engineers to avoid making such blunders while they design. Please do read this article because understanding the intensity of the job of a Civil Engineer is must for every student and professional. I guess this realization has been washed away and forgotten in the wave of commercialism.

Hostel Design, Lucknow, India

The client mailed me the layout of the existing construction. After I studied the layout, I figured out that the Column layout was pathetic. I wonder what kind of Civil Engineer must have made the layout or if at all any Civil Engineer has done it.

Errors in Construction

Wrong size of the Columns

The size of the columns was 9”x9” and the building is supposed to be constructed upto G+2 floors which is really disastrous for the structure.

It could lead to structural failure and ultimately structural collapse.

(The duty of the Civil Engineer is to understand and not make such dramatic blunders. The consequences of this kind of structural design could be disastrous.)

Column layout and Exterior wall Construction
Column layout and Exterior wall Construction

9”x9” size columns are only preferred if you were to construct only a ground floor structure using M15 grade concrete. If you are to construct another floor that is (G+1), the minimum size of the column should not be less than 9”x12” using M15 grade concrete.

If the client insists on using smaller columns (9”x9”); in that case, use of M20 grade concrete should be done mandatorily and the construction should not be initiated before the client agrees to do so.

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