Classification of Surveys and Surveying Methods in Engineering

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Classification of Survey

Study of classification of surveys is a major part of the study of Surveying as a whole. The surveys are conducted using various different instruments. The use of instruments depend upon its availability and suitability to the site.

Surveys are classified as following:

  1. According to the instruments used for the survey
  2. According to the purpose of the survey
  3. According to the method employed for the survey
  4. According to the field of work

In this article, we will list out the classification in each and category and study them in detail…

According to the instruments used

Chain Survey

Chain Survey is conducted using different lengths of chains specifically made for the surveying purpose.

Compass Survey

As the name itself suggests, the compass is used for the purpose of the survey.

Plane table Survey

Plane table is used for the purpose.

Levelling

Theodolite Survey

Theodolite is an instrument that is useful for conducting accurate surveys.

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Introduction to Surveying | Civil Engineering

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Surveying

Surveying is the art of making suitable measurements in horizontal or vertical planes. This is one of the important subjects of civil engineering. Without taking a survey of the plot where the construction is to be carried out, the work cannot begin.

Surveying Chart
Surveying Chart

Levelling

Levelling is the art of representing relative positions in the vertical plane of different points on the earth’s surface.

It helps in determining the areas that are to be levelled to achieve a certain slope.

Principles of Surveying

All the surveys that are conducted are based on two fundamental principles. They are as follows:

  1. Working from whole to part
  2. Fixing a point with reference to two fixed points

Working from whole to part

In order to localize errors and prevent their accumulation, a set of control points is always established with great precision first for the whole area to be surveyed.

Later on, details or filled in between these control points to a relatively smaller precision.

This fundamental work principle is known as “Working from whole to part”.

Fixing a point with reference to two fixed points

Survey stations are fixed by atleast two measurements, either both linear or angular measurements or linear and angular measurements from two control points.

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Macro Economics | Economics Related to Building Industry

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Study of Macro Economics

Study of Economics can be divided into two parts:

  1. Micro Economics
  2. Macro Economics

In this article, we are going to discuss various terms related to Micro Economics. Check out the brief on “Macro Economics and Micro Economics“.

Here is the list of terms we are about to discuss in this article:

  1. Demand and supply
  2. Inflation
  3. Interest rate
  4. Employment
  5. Savings and Investments
  6. Monetary Policy
  7. Fiscal Policy

Demand and Supply

At national level, this depends on the government policies. How different building activities and infrastructure are planned and budgeted. Taxation polices, direct and indirect tax, allocation of funds for housing for the weaker sections in Five Year plans.

Inflation

This aspect depends on how effectively the government can control inflation by exercising control over general price rise and building materials, effective tax collection both at central and state level, maintaining equilibrium in demand and supply, earning foreign exchange. The increase in oil prices invariably increase the cost of living in all walks of life including building industry.

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Introduction to Building Economics as related to Architecture

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Introduction to Building Economics

Building economics is concerned with production and consumption and services and the analysis of commercial activities –

As it is related to architecture and building activity – all types of buildings for all types of functions by the builders (production) and consumption i.e., the ones who either buy or hire those buildings for various functions with the services offered by professionals like architects, planners, engineers etc.

Ends – scarce means

The scarce means like land, building materials, and allied services result in failing to meet the deman in housing sector.

Basic concept – any activity (legally permitted) which shall result in building activities to serve people for which the people are ready to pay the price directly or indirectly by buying or hiring the spaces can be treated as an economic activity.

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Basic Inputs into Building Construction | Engineering Economics

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Building Construction Economics

We will be discussing Inputs into Building Construction in terms of four important factors:

  1. Land
  2. Labour
  3. Capital
  4. Materials

Land

Marshall defines Land “Land means the materials, and the forces which nature gives us freely for the human beings (other creatures as well), in land, in water, in air, light and Heat”.

  • Land is nature’s gift
  • Land has no supply price (supply remains same) whether price of land is high or low
  • Land is permanent (lack of mobility)
  • Land lacks mobility in geographic sense
  • Provides infinite variation in fertility, utility, situation etc

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Equity Versus Efficiency | Building Economics

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Efficiency in Economics

Capability and able to perform duties well. The efficiency in production of building materials is high as there is competition and those who work in production are offered annual bonus depending upon the profits made by companies.

The efficiency in construction industry is generally high if the projects are handled by Architects, Engineers, and experienced builders. Unfortunately many constructions re handled by builders who are not experienced.

This is due to the ignorance of the public and loss of investments by the public. Most of such constructions are mediocre.

Equity in Economics

The central Government helps the public in offering fair rates of interest of the public invests in Central Schemes like Indira Vikaas Patrika (IVP), Postal Savings schemes which offer Monthly income schemes on investment in Postal saving schemes and they offer interest on fixed deposit also. Share market is most risky as it is volatile.

Public versus Private Participation relating to Architecture and Engineering

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Public Participation versus Private Participation

Public sectors like HUDCO, Hindustan steel, Heavy Engineering corporation etc are controlled by Central Government, Nizam Sugars, Allwyn Ltd, Praga tools etc are controlled by the State Government of AP (Andhra Pradesh).

As far as Building Industry is concerned, materials like cement, steel, wood, aluminium, brick manufacture, variety of floor tiles, wall tiles, electrical materials, plumbing and sanitary ware and fittings etc (to mention only few) are produced in India resulting in quality products, at various price levels to suit different economic levels of social strata.

Only Housing meant for central/state government employees is controlled by central or State governments. The housing for weaker sections are taken care of by State governments as a policy of Government.

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Labour Intensive Projects Versus Capital Intensive Projects

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Labour Intensive Industry versus Capital Intensive Industry

There is a problem of choosing between labour intensive industries or Labour intensive methods and Capital Intensive industries or Capital Intensive Methods. In under developed countries, due to chronic unemployment or cheap labour to capital is preferred.

The most efficient use of resources in less developed countries will tend to favour labour intensive methods. For innovations, it would also follow the Capital Saving and Labour – using innovations, it would be preferred. It would be profitable to adopt capital-intensive techniques to increase productivity.

If the export industries are capital-intensive such as mining and mineral refining, then, even though there is surplus labour, extensive investment has to be done in order to earn necessary Foreign Exchange.

For example, In India, Labour force is available in plenty. This is the reason most of the building industry is Labour Intensive including both skilled and unskilled labour.

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Introduction to Design of RCC Structures

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RCC structures

RCC (Reinforced Cement Concrete) is a construction technology which evolved with the evolution of different structural materials in the 18th century during the Industrial Revolution.

Industrial Revolution brought in new technology which helped in the manufacture of various materials. The Architect Le Corbusier used RCC for various constructions. He believed that any shape and form was possible; if RCC is to be used.

For example, Notre Dame Du Haut, Ronchamp, France

This is an example of Le Corbusier Project where he used RCC like plastic.

Notre Dame Du Haut, Ronchamp, France | RCC Structures
Notre Dame Du Haut, Ronchamp, France | RCC Structures

What is RCC?

RCC means Reinforced Cement Concrete, i.e., cement concrete reinforced with steel bars, steel plates, steel mesh etc to increase the tension withstanding capacity of the structure.

Cement Concrete can take up immense compression but weak in tension whereas steel is good in withstanding both tension and compression.

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Digital Showroom Design | Interior Design

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Interior Design of a Digital Showroom

In the increasing competitive business photography labs, there is a need to constantly evolve strategies to corner as much market share as one possibly can. Apart from quality of prints and service offered to customers, discerning lab owners strive to offer that little extra which can make a difference in retaining customer loyalty.

The owner of Xpress Digital at Madurai had this in mind when approached the Architect for the project.

Digital Showroom
Digital Showroom

The client brief enlisted space for studio with makeup room, a machine room, a work station, separate booking and delivery counters and a spacious waiting area. Acting on this brief, the design duo set out to customise the requirements by subdivide the linear hall of 86sqm into smaller sub spaces.

In the process of customization, their first task was to do away with the conventional linear counter, which separate the work space from the visitor.

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