Micro Economics and Macro Economics | Engineering Economics

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The study of economics is broadly divided into two categories:

  1. Micro Economics
  2. Macro Economics

In our previous article “Introduction to Building Economics as related to Architecture“, we discussed certain important terms relating to Building Economics. This article is the continuation of the study of Micro Economics and Macro Economics. This article will give you a brief idea of Macro Economics and Micro Economics.

Micro Economics

It is a small part of whole economics which deals with individuals, their needs, their behaviour, individual firms and its activities. This deals with studies like incomes, capital spending on building, individuals who are engaged in various products for building construction.

Micro-economics is also called Price Theory.

Importance of Micro-economics

It analyses how millions of consumers and producers in an economy take decisions about products and services offered. It also deals with how buildings and services are distributed belonging to different economic status.

Limitations

  • It cannot give an idea of the function of the economy as a whole.
  • It assumes full employment which is a rare phenomenon in developing countries or even developed countries which is quite unrealistic.

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Types of Scales in Engineering Surveying

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Types of Scales | Engineering Surveying

In the previous article, we discussed briefly on the topic of “Scales in Surveying” where we came across an important term “Representative factor” which forms an important part in understanding the scales in Surveying.

In this article, we will discuss different types of scales used in Surveying…

The scales are classified into four categories:

  1. Plain Scale
  2. Diagonal Scale
  3. Vernier Scale
  4. Scale of chords

Lets go on with the discussion of types of scales briefly for our better understanding…

Plain Scale

Plain Scale is one on which it is possible to measure two dimensions only. For example, measurements such as units and lengths, metres and decimetres etc.

Plain Scale
Plain Scale

Six different plain scales in metric used by engineers, Architects and Surveyors.

Diagonal Scale

On diagonal scale, it is possible to measure three dimensions such as metres, decimetres and centimetres, units , tens and hundreds; yards, feet and inches etc.

A short length is divided into number of parts using the principle of similar triangle in which sides are proportional.

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Methods of Calculation of Areas in Surveying | Simpson’s Rule

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Calculation of Areas in Surveying | Simpson’s Rule

In one of my previous articles, I discussed Midpoint Ordinate Rule and Average Ordinate Rule in detail with an example and listed out various important methods used for the calculation of areas in Surveying. In this article, we will deal with the next important method (rule) i.e. Simpson’s Rule along with a numerical example used for the calculation of areas in the field of Surveying.

Here are the five important rules (Methods) used for the calculation of areas in Surveying:

  1. Midpoint ordinate rule
  2. Average ordinate rule
  3. Simpson’s rule
  4. Trapezoidal rule
  5. Graphical rule

Simpson’s Rule

Statement

It states that, sum of first and last ordinates has to be done. Add twice the sum of remaining odd ordinates and four times the sum of remaining even ordinates. Multiply to this total sum by 1/3rd of the common distance between the ordinates which gives the required area.

Where O1, O2, O3, …. On are the lengths of the ordinates

d = common distance

n = number of divisions

Note:

This rule is applicable only if ordinates are odd, i.e. even number of divisions.

If the number of ordinates are even, the area of last division maybe calculated separated and added to the result obtained by applying Simpson’s rule to two remaining ordinates.

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Next Generation Internet | Web 3.0

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Web 3.0, a phrase coined by John Markoff of the New York Times in 2006, refers to a supposed third generation of Internet-based services that collectively comprise what might be called ‘the intelligent Web’—such as those using semantic web, microformats, natural language search, data mining, machine learning, recommendation agents, and artificial intelligence technologies – which emphasize machine-facilitated understanding of information in order to provide a more productive and intuitive user experience.

Web 3.0 Next Generation Internet

CEO of Google.com, Eric Schmidt gave a speech about Web 3.0 in Korea in May 2007…

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Contour Analysis | Guide to Surveying and Levelling

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Importance of Contouring in the field of Surveying

Contouring is an imaginary line on the ground obtained by joining points having same elevation.

Characteristics of Contours

Contour lines are closed, however they may be close on the map itself or outside the map depending upon the topography.

The spacing between contour lines depends upon the slope of the ground.

In steep slopes, the spacing is small, for gentle slopes the spacing is large.

If the contour lines are equally spaced, they indicate uniform slope.

Contour Analysis
Contour Analysis

If the contour lines are parallel, straight or equally placed, they represent plane surface.

In a series of contour lines on the plan or map indicates either a hill or depression.

In case of the hill, the values of the elevation go on increasing towards the centre whereas in case of depression, the values go on decreasing towards the centre.

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Causes of Foundation Damage | Fungus Rot and Insects

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Causes of Foundation Damage and its  Prevention

In my earlier articles, we discussed one of the important causes of foundation damage “Erosion”. Getting a clarity on the subject helps you prevent your structure from further damage or any damage that might happen in future. We have also discussed “how analysis of foundation damage is to be carried out”.

In this article, we will discuss in detail the foundation damage occurring due to Rot and Insects. These elements are also responsible for foundation damage and if ignored or left unnoticed can cause severe damage resulting in structural failure.

Fungus rot causing Foundation damage
Fungus rot causing Foundation damage

Types of foundation damage can be classified as follows:

Erosion

  1. Natural rock
  2. Brick

Rot

Insects

Moisture damage

  1. Frost wedging
  2. Salt bloom

Settlement in the ground

  1. Groundwater lowering
  2. Limited bearing capacity of the ground (land)
  3. Excavations performed below the foundations and poor quality of backfill
  4. Increased load on the ground leading to failure
  5. Damage to the neighbouring houses
  6. Increased load
  7. Damage (by removing) to the neighbouring houses
  8. Horizontal movement occurring in the ground

Frost heave/adfreezing

Alum shale

Let us move on with the discussion on Rot and Insects causing foundation damage.

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Science of Structural Engineering | Design of Steel Structures

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Scope and Importance of Structural Engineering

Structural Engineering deals with the mechanism of the structural system that is it deals with structural analysis and structural design. The structural engineering plays an important and necessary part in mechanical engineering, electrical engineering, civil engineering, naval engineering, aeronautical engineering and in all the specialized phases of engineering. Structural Engineers are like puzzle masters.

Millennium Dome
Millennium Dome

It not just deals with the various different fields of engineering but is also interrelated with Architectural Design. Understanding the Interrelationship of Structural Engineering and Architectural Design is very essential for an engineer and an Architect…

We have already discussed “Art of Structural Engineering” in our previous articles….

People are usually curious to know what Structural Engineering is like. What is the work of a Structural Engineer??? What are Steel Structures?

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Design of Road Junctions | Types of Road Junctions

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Road Junctions

Road Junctions are designed at places where vehicular traffic can move in different directions in a systematic way. Road Junctions decrease the probability of accidents. The traffic at Road junctions is controlled and resumed in a systematic way to proceed further in their respective directions with the help of traffic signals.

Road Junction in Taiwan
Road Junction in Taiwan

Design of Road Junctions is a crucial subject. Understanding the nature of traffic, the kind of area, density of population etc is very important so as to propose a suitable road Junction design.

Earlier we discussed;

  1. Means of Access and Design factors to be considered for the design of roads
  2. Important elements to be considered in Road Design

In this article, we will study all the major types of road Junctions in detail.

On the basis of the shape of the Road Junctions, they are named as:

  1. T-Junction
  2. Y-Junction
  3. Acute Angle Junction
  4. Staggered Junction
  5. Multiple Junction

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Case study of Osmania Arts College, Hyderabad, India | Heritage Structure

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Osmania Arts College, Hyderabad

Osmania Arts College is located in the city of Hyderabad, India. It lies in the campus of Osmania University. This structure has come to be known as the epitome of unity between Hindus and Muslims. This great structure portrays Indo-sarcenic Architecture, that is the fusion of Islamic and Hindu Architecture is clearly seen.

Osmania Arts College, Hyderabad, India
Osmania Arts College, Hyderabad, India

This building dominates the entire University Campus. It serves as a heritage structure for the state of Andhra Pradesh. It was constructed in the year 1918 by the Seventh Nizam of Hyderabad Nawab Mir Osman Ali Khan. This structure though resembles a palace was originally constructed and designed as college. It is the third oldest higher learning institution established in the erstwhile princely state of Hyderabad.

Design Concept

Cent percent emphasis is given on the symmetrical planning of the structure. The college building is symmetrical in plan and also in elevation in all respects. Beautiful pointed arched have been adopted from the Islamic Architecture originated from Persia and the ornamentation at the top of the structure has been taken from the Hindu Architectural style.

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Concept of an Underground City and Skyway Systems

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An underground city is a network of tunnels that connects various buildings below the street level. These may include office blocks, metro stations, underground shopping malls.

Montreal's Underground City Network
Montreal's Underground City Network

Underground structures or networks are usually found in countries with cold climate. For example, the temperature in Canada in winter is -10 degree Celsius. The climate in Canada does not permit free movement over ground. That is the reason for the development of underground cities. Montreal’s RESO is the world’s largest Underground city in Canada. It is popularly known as “Double Decker City“.

Underground cities usually have entrances through public spaces. The underground structure rises over ground and provides for a proper entrance to the underground structure.

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