Designer

Errors in Chaining | Guide to Surveying and Levelling

by

Types of Errors occurring in Chain Surveying

There are two types of Errors that are commonly seen to occur in Chain Surveying. For students studying the concept of Chain Surveying, study of the occurrence of different types of Errors in Chain Surveying is important. In this article, we will briefly discuss different types of Errors in Chain Surveying and the situations in which they occur.

Types of Errors:

  1. Cumulative error
  2. Compensative error

Cumulative error

These errors always accumulate in one direction and are serious in nature. They affect the survey work considerably.

They make measurements too long or too short.

These errors are of two types and are known as systematic errors.

They are classified as follows:

  1. Positive error
  2. Negative error

Positive error

These errors make the measured length more than the actual length which results into wrong calculations by the Surveyor.

Read more

Methods for Calculation of Areas in Surveying | Average Ordinate Rule

by

Calculation of Areas in Surveying | Average Ordinate Rule

In one of my previous articles, I discussed Midpoint Ordinate Rule in detail with an example and listed out various important methods used for the calculation of areas in Surveying. In this article, we will deal with the next important method (rule) used for the calculation of areas in the field of Surveying.

Here are the five important rules (Methods) used for the calculation of areas in Surveying:

  1. Midpoint ordinate rule
  2. Average ordinate rule
  3. Simpson’s rule
  4. Trapezoidal rule
  5. Graphical rule

Average Ordinate Rule

The rule states that (to the average of all the ordinates taken at each of the division of equal length multiplies by baseline length divided by number of ordinates).

Average Ordinate Rule
Average Ordinate Rule

O1, O2, O3, O4….On ordinate taken at each of division.

L = length of baseline

n = number of equal parts (the baseline divided)

d = common distance

Area = [(O1+ O2+ O3+ …. + On)*L]/(n+1)

Here is an example of a numerical problem regarding the calculation of areas using Average Ordinate Rule

Read more

Different Methods for the Calculation of Areas in Surveying

by

Different methods for the calculation of Areas in the field of Surveying

In this article, we will list out different methods to calculate the areas in Surveying and also study each of the method in depth… We will also explain each method with a suitable example for your better understanding…

Here are the five important rules (Methods) used for the calculation of areas in Surveying:

  1. Midpoint ordinate rule
  2. Average ordinate rule
  3. Simpson’s rule
  4. Trapezoidal rule
  5. Graphical rule

We will now move on with our discussion on the first rule “Midpoint ordinate rule” with a suitable example.

Midpoint-ordinate rule

The rule states that if the sum of all the ordinates taken at midpoints of each division multiplied by the length of the base line having the ordinates (9 divided by number of equal parts).

Midpoint ordinate rule | Method for calculating area in Surveying
Midpoint ordinate rule | Method for calculating area in Surveying

In this, base line AB is divided into equal parts and the ordinates are measured in the midpoints of each division.

Area = ([O1 +O2 + O3 + …..+ On]*L)/n

L = length of baseline

n = number of equal parts, the baseline is divided

d = common distance between the ordinates

Example of the area calculation by midpoint ordinate rule

The following perpendicular offsets were taken at 10m interval from a survey line to an irregular boundary line. The ordinates are measured at midpoint of the division are 10, 13, 17, 16, 19, 21, 20 and 18m. Calculate the are enclosed by the midpoint ordinate rule.

Read more

Stitching Cracks in the Walls | Design of RCC Structures

by

How to stitch the cracks in the plastering of the wall and prevent further cracking?

Occurrence of cracks in a building is a common problem to deal with. The intensity of the problem of the occurrence of cracks increases with the increased depth of the cracks.

The cracks are generally classified into two major categories:

  1. Minor Cracks or Surface cracks
  2. Major cracks or Structural Cracks

Minor cracks or Surface Cracks

In one of my earlier articles, I discussed various reasons for the occurrence of minor cracks or Surface cracks. Surface cracks do not result in making the structure unsound. The structural stability is intact incase of minor cracks. The aesthetics are affected due to the occurrence of minor cracks.

Major Cracks or Structural cracks

Major cracks or Structural cracks as the name suggests are responsible for making the structure unsound in nature. When deeper cracks are seen to develop on structural components such as columns, beams, foundations, these cracks are termed as Structural cracks since they cause structural damage.

Now we will go ahead with discussing how the cracks occurring on the plastered surface can be stitched and prevented from further deepening…

Stitching cracks
Stitching cracks

The small diagonal grooves are made across the crack.

16mm diameter steel rods are embedded in the grooves and are then covered with cement concrete.

If there are too many cracks occurring on the plastered surface, remove the entire plaster and plaster it again.

Problems facing the Earth

by

Problems facing the Earth

We all human beings share a beautiful planet, Earth, which is home to millions of species of plants, animals and aquatic life. Our planet is astoundingly a perfect design, where plants create oxygen, which in turn keeps animals alive and keeps the planet cool.

But our planet has been facing some serious problems which have been created by inexhaustible human greed to exploit nature for personal comforts. Hundreds of thousands of acres of rainforests have been cut away to make way for roads and buildings.

Lumber is a major source of revenue to some countries. With vast swaths of forests disappearing, and seemingly unabated poaching of wild animals has wiped out many species from the face of the earth. The diversity and balance of this planet we call home is being severely threatened by man.

Problems on Earth
Problems on Earth

Oil is known as the blood of earth. Since the discovery and large scale production of oil in the last 150 years, human civilization has progressed at a rocket speed.

But humans have over exploited this natural resource, and this fuel is running out fast. As humans demand for more and more oil for their motor vehicles, the blood of earth is being sucked up using large pumps.

Human greed does not realize that planet earth cannot survive without its blood, its oil.

There are many manmade disasters threatening human kind. Man has made extremely distinctive nuclear weapons, which have the capacity to destroy humankind and send civilization back to the stone age. Global warming is another huge problem, where indiscriminate use of oil is warming up the atmosphere, in turn disturbing the ecology of the planet.

Read more

Failures in Buildings | Important Construction Materials

by

Defects in Buildings | Building Materials used in Construction

In my previous article, we began with a discussion on Building Materials used for Construction. We have already discussed the two major building materials such as Sand and Mud. Now we will go on and discuss the role of water, Cement and Cement Mortar in Construction.

Water in Construction

Salt free water should be used on the construction site for the mixing of cement. If salty water is used in the construction, it will result in formation of cracks in the building.

For example: Vishakhapatnam in Andhra Pradesh, India has brine water below 100’. That is why, the bore cannot be dug to more than 80’ feet for water to be used on the construction site.

Cement in Construction

There are various grades of cement available for the purpose of construction.

For example: M15, M20, M25 etc

The grade of cement to be used for construction is decided on the basis of the kind of construction and the structural design.

Cement is always used along with steel, that is RCC (Reinforced Cement Concrete) construction. Only cement cannot be used because it develops cracks.

Grooves are made over the layer of cement mortar.

For example: When cement flooring is done, a thin layer of cement is laid and grooves are made on the cement layer to prevent cracks.

Read more

Defects in Construction | Building Materials used in Construction

by

Building Materials used in Construction | Defects in Buildings

The building materials used for construction of the building are the major factors of a successful structure or a failed structure. The major core materials that are responsible for the standing structure are:

  1. Sand
  2. Mud
  3. Cement
  4. Water
  5. Cement Mortar

Usually, the failure of a building is due to the development of cracks. The intensity of damage describes the kind of crack and the repair measures to be taken….

There are two major types of cracks:

  1. Minor causes of Cracks resulting in minor cracks or surface cracks in Buildings
  2. Major causes of cracks resulting in major cracks or structural cracks in Buildings
Villas Construction site, India
Villas Construction site, India

The purpose of writing this article was to figure out the different building materials used for different purposes and how their quality or the quality of their mixture affects the structure as a whole.

Uses of Sand in Construction

Sand is the major building material used in any kind of construction. It is used in every phase of the construction project, i.e. from the foundation to the finishing of the floor.

There are three major varieties of sand:

a) Fine sand

b) Coarse sand

c) Medium sand

Read more

Repair of cracks in the RCC Staircase | Building Construction

by

What would you do in case of a RCC staircase having cracks?

The development of cracks occurring in RCC staircase is one of the major problems to deal with in RCC construction.

Before we go to the ultimate solution of the repair of cracks in a staircase, I would want all the students to know that, “Design in a way that you would never have to look for solutions”.

This is an important matter. The graver the problem, the harsher and shorter the solution is….

Basic elements of Staircase
Basic elements of Staircase

Earlier, in one of my article, I have explained the “Design of RCC Staircase”. Please do go through before designing….

RCC staircase cracks

There are two types of cracks, they are;

  1. Minor cracks or surface cracks
  2. Major cracks or structural Cracks

Read more

Factors causing damage to the building | Failures in Buildings

by

Factors causing damage to the building | Building Construction

Major damage to the building is usually caused by the natural calamities. But there are various factors that can cause damage to the buildings.

Some of them are as follows:

  • Erosion
  • Earthquake
  • Natural Calamities
  • Violence
  • Fire
  • Lack of maintenance
Cracks in a Building at San Francisco
Cracks in a Building at San Francisco

The damage incurred to the building is usually in the form of major and minor cracks. Major cracks could be structural cracks which cause immense damage to the structure. Earlier, I wrote two articles on the subject “Cracks in Buildings“. The cracks are classified depending on the amount of damage they cause to the structure.

Physical inspections to be done in a building

After the construction of any building, periodical inspections of physical components of the building are to be carried out.  Physical inspections help us in keeping a check on the damage or wear and tear caused to the structure. Inspection is important so that we identify the problem and repair it before it gets unrepairable.

Read more